What Social Psychology Studies
Social psychology examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the real, imagined, or implied presence of others. It explores the ways in which social contexts influence the mind and actions.
Fundamental Theories
Kurt Lewin’s Formula
Lewin proposed that behavior (B) is a function of the person (P) and the environment (E): B = f(P, E). Both components are essential for understanding how behavior emerges.
The ABC Triad
The ABC triad links affect, behavior, and cognition in a self‑reinforcing loop. Cognition shapes affect, affect drives behavior, and behavior feeds back into cognition, creating a continuous cycle.
Dual‑Process Theory
System 1 vs. System 2
System 1 operates quickly, automatically, and with low effort. It works unconsciously and often produces intuitive judgments. System 2 is slower, deliberative, and requires high effort and conscious attention.
Typical Errors of System 1
Because System 1 relies on fast processing, it is prone to errors such as optical illusion misperceptions, the Moses illusion, the bat‑and‑ball problem, priming effects, and context‑dependent word meanings.
Conformity and Social Influence
Asch’s Conformity Experiment
In Asch’s classic study, 37% of participants conformed to an incorrect majority judgment on critical trials.
Reducing Conformity
Having a single ally who provides the correct answer reduces conformity dramatically, dropping the rate to about 5%.
Types of Conformity
- Informational conformity: Individuals conform because they believe the group is correct and want accurate information.
- Normative conformity: Individuals conform to avoid social disapproval and gain acceptance.
Private‑Response Reduction
When participants give private responses rather than public ones, conformity falls by roughly two‑thirds, indicating that normative pressure is a key driver of public conformity.
Self‑Knowledge and the Self
Three Parts of the Self
- Self‑knowledge – beliefs about personal traits and abilities.
- Interpersonal self – the public image presented to others.
- Agent self – the executive system that initiates actions.
Sources of Self‑Knowledge
- Looking‑glass self – understanding oneself through imagined judgments of others.
- Introspection – direct access to one’s own mental states.
- Social comparison – evaluating oneself relative to others.
- Self‑perception – inferring attitudes from one’s own behavior.
- Phenomenal self – the moment‑to‑moment working self‑concept.
Positive Illusions
People often hold systematic overestimations, including inflated self‑assessment, illusion of control, and unrealistic optimism.
Self‑Esteem
High self‑esteem is linked to confidence, initiative, and positive affect, though it can sometimes lead to narcissism. Low self‑esteem tends toward modest self‑views, avoidance of failure, and emotional volatility.
Self‑Control and Decision Fatigue
Ego Depletion
Ego depletion refers to a temporary reduction in self‑control after exerting willpower, such as resisting a tempting cookie, which then impairs performance on a subsequent task.
Decision Fatigue
Decision fatigue leads judges to become less favorable later in the day, contradicting the notion that they become more lenient.
Glucose and Willpower
Consuming glucose can replenish depleted self‑control resources, restoring the ability to regulate behavior.
Decision Biases
Risk Aversion vs. Temporal Discounting
- Risk aversion: Over‑weighs potential losses, leading to cautious choices.
- Temporal discounting: Prefers immediate rewards over larger delayed ones.
Zeigarnik Effect
Unfinished goals remain intrusive and motivate completion; people remember incomplete tasks better than completed ones.
Planning Fallacy
The planning fallacy causes under‑estimation of obstacles, leading to overly optimistic timelines.
Goal Shielding
Goal shielding automatically suppresses non‑focal goals while pursuing a primary goal, helping maintain focus.
Status‑Quo Bias
Status‑quo bias leads people to prefer keeping the default option rather than changing it.
Self‑Serving vs. Skeptical Bias
- Self‑serving bias: Attributes success to internal factors and failure to external ones.
- Skeptical bias: Doubts positive information about the self.
Motivation and Delay of Gratification
Hot vs. Cool Systems
The hot system is impulsive and emotion‑driven, pushing for immediate gratification. The cool system is rational and future‑oriented, supporting delayed rewards.
Cool‑System Strategies
Techniques such as deep breathing, singing, distraction, physical distance, or waiting with a friend help the cool system delay gratification.
Reactance Theory
Reactance theory predicts a stronger desire for the prohibited option when it is restricted.
Safety Planning for Suicide Prevention
The first three steps of a safety plan include listing contacts, noting resources, and securing means. Additional steps involve a no‑leave‑alone rule and drafting a coping checklist.
